Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is a critical design consideration in modern electronic equipment. Electromagnetic interference (EMI) not only affects the normal operation of equipment, but can also violate regulatory requirements. To effectively suppress these disturbances, engineers use a wide range of filtering components, with inductors playing a central role. Among the many types of inductors, Common Mode Chokes and Differential Mode Inductors are two of the most commonly used and have very different functions.
Although both are used for EMI filtering, the types of disturbances they target, their structures and operating principles are very different. In this article, we will discuss the essential differences between common mode choke and differential mode inductors, their application scenarios, and provide practical selection points to help engineers make the right choice in circuit design.
A common mode inductor, also known as a common mode choke, is a filtering element primarily used to suppress common mode interference.
Common Mode Noise (CMN) is a noise signal with the same direction and size on two signal lines (e.g., power lines L and N, or data lines D+ and D-) relative to the ground or reference plane. This interference is usually caused by external EMF coupling or unbalanced circuitry within the device and is radiated outward through the cable or introduced into the device internally through the cable.
The typical construction of a common mode inductor is that two or more sets of coils are wound on the same high permeability ferrite core with the same number of turns and orientation.
The operating principle is based on magnetic field cancellation and high impedance effects:
For differential mode signals (useful signals): When normal differential mode currents (i.e., signals of opposite directions and equal sizes on two lines) flow through two windings, the magnetic fluxes they generate in the cores are in opposite directions and cancel each other out. Therefore, the impedance of a common mode inductor to a differential mode signal is extremely low and hardly affects the transmission of useful signals.
For common-mode signals (noise): When common-mode currents (in the same direction) flow through two windings, they generate magnetic flux in the core in the same direction, superimposed on each other. This causes the core to exhibit high inductance, which creates an extremely high impedance to common-mode noise and achieves the purpose of suppressing and attenuating common-mode interference.
Common mode choke usually have four pins (two inlets and two outlets) and are composed of two windings with the homonymous ends of the windings located on the same side of the magnetic ring.
Differential Mode Inductor is a traditional inductive component mainly used to suppress differential mode interference.
Differential Mode Noise (DMN) is a noise signal with opposite direction and unequal size between two signal lines. This kind of interference is directly superimposed on the useful signal and is usually caused by internal factors such as the switching action of the switching power supply, load changes or signal line impedance mismatch.
The structure of a differential mode inductor is similar to that of an ordinary inductor, which usually has only one winding, wound on a magnetic core.
Its working principle is based on the self-inductive effect of the inductor:
For differential mode signals (useful signals and noise): A differential mode inductor impedes the change of current flowing through itself. Whether it is a normal differential mode signal or differential mode noise, as long as the current flows through the inductor, it will be affected by its inductance.
Filtering effect: differential mode inductor through its high frequency impedance characteristics, the high frequency of the differential mode noise attenuation, while the low frequency of the useful signals (such as power supply DC or low-frequency AC component) to maintain a low impedance, so as to achieve filtering.
Differential mode inductors usually have only two pins and only one winding. In EMI filtering circuits, it is usually connected in series on the power or signal line.
The core distinction between common-mode chokes and differential-mode chokes lies in the types of noise they address, their structural design, and their impact on useful signals. The table below summarizes the key differences between the two:
| Characteristics | Common Mode Choke | Differential Mode Inductor |
| Suppression target
| Common-mode interference (noise in the same direction relative to ground) | Common-mode interference (noise between signal lines) |
| Working Principle | Flux superposition produces high impedance (for common mode), while flux cancellation produces low impedance (for differential mode). | Self-inductance creates high impedance (to all high-frequency currents) |
| Structure | Two windings, wound in the same direction on the same magnetic core | A winding, wound around the magnetic core |
| Number of pins | 4 (two in, two out) | 2 (one in, one out) |
| For useful signals | Extremely low impedance with virtually no attenuation | There is a certain amount of impedance, which may cause slight attenuation of the useful signal. |
| Application Location | Typically used at the input/output ends of power cables or high-speed signal lines to filter out radiated interference. | Typically used in series with power cables or signal lines to filter out conducted interference. |
Due to their excellent suppression of common-mode noise without affecting differential-mode signal transmission, common-mode chokes are widely used in the following scenarios:
Differential mode chokes primarily suppress differential mode noise on power lines, often paired with capacitors to form π-type or L-type filters:
Proper selection is critical to ensuring effective EMI filtering. When choosing common-mode and differential-mode inductors, the following core parameters must be considered:
Rated Current (I_rated): The choke must withstand the circuit’s maximum continuous operating current.
Common Mode Impedance (Z_CM): This is the most critical parameter. Select chokes exhibiting maximum impedance at the target noise frequency (typically tens to hundreds of MHz). Higher impedance yields better suppression.
Differential Mode Impedance (Z_DM): Select inductors with low differential mode impedance to minimize attenuation of useful signals.
DC Resistance (DCR): Lower DCR is preferable to reduce power loss and temperature rise.
Operating Frequency Range: Select appropriate core material and winding structure based on the circuit’s operating frequency and noise frequency.
Inductance (L): Determine the inductance value based on the required cutoff frequency and filtering characteristics. Higher inductance provides better attenuation of low-frequency noise.
Rated Current (I_rated): Similar to common-mode inductors, it must meet the circuit’s maximum operating current requirement.
Saturation Current (I_sat): When current increases beyond a certain threshold, the core saturates, causing inductance to drop sharply. During selection, the saturation current must exceed the peak current in the circuit to ensure filtering performance.
DC Resistance (DCR): Similarly, DCR should be as low as possible.
Common-mode ckoke and differential-mode inductors are the two indispensable forces in EMI filter circuits. Common-mode inductors, with their unique dual-winding structure, efficiently suppress common-mode interference while protecting the integrity of useful signals. They are the preferred choice for high-speed signal and power line radiation suppression. The differential mode inductor, through the self-inductance effect, directly attenuates the differential mode interference and is the cornerstone of power conduction filtering.
Understanding the fundamental differences among them: different suppression objects, different structures, and different working principles, is the basis for correct circuit design and component selection. Only by reasonably combining the specific types of interference and circuit requirements can an electronic system that meets strict EMC standards be constructed.
In power systems, measuring devices such as electricity meters typically need to be connected to high-voltage or high-current circuits via current transformers (CTs). A common standard is that the interface parameters of electricity meters and the rated secondary current of their matching CTs are almost always 5A (or 1A). This article will delve into the reasons behind this standard and, in conjunction with common parameter markings on electricity meters, explain how to correctly select the matching current transformer.
The current transformer parameters supported by the meter are usually marked on the meter, such as 0.25-5(6)A, 0.015-1.5(6)A, 0.25-5(80)A, 0.25-5(100)A, etc. These parameters identify the operating range and technical requirements when connecting to an external CT. These parameters identify the operating range and technical requirements of the meter when connected to an external CT:
Take 0.015-1.5(6)A as an example:
* Starting current (0.015): the minimum current of 15mA that the meter can accurately measure.
* Basic current Ib(1.5):The rated current value of the energy meter is 1.5A, and the accuracy level of the energy meter can be guaranteed when it works under this current.
* Maximum current Imax(6): the maximum current at which the meter can be carried safely and continuously without damage, 6 A. This is covered in the IEC/EN 62053 specification for electricity meters.
Two core principles must be followed in selecting a matching current transformer: secondary current matching and primary current sizing.
a. Matching of rated secondary current (key)
The rated secondary current of the CT must match the basic current Ib of the energy meter.
– For meters with parameters 0.25-5(6)A, 0.25-5(80)A, 0.25-5(100)A, you need a current transformer with a 5A rated secondary current.
– For energy meters with parameters 0.015-1.5(6)A (used in specific scenarios although the base current is not 5A/1A standard), you need to equip a CT with a rated secondary current of 1.5A (these are less common and usually follow the 5A or 1A standard).
b. Selection of Rated Primary Current and Variable Ratio
The rated primary current of the CT (which determines the variable ratio, e.g., 100/5A, 500/5A, 100/1A) should be selected in accordance with the load current of the actual primary circuit. The selection principle is to make the actual load current of normal operation close to the rated primary current of the CT. According to IEC/EN 61869 standard, 1.2 times of the rated primary current is also in line with the nominal accuracy of the product, so the best measurement accuracy can be ensured.
Therefore, for energy meters with parameters of 0.015-1.5(6)A, the best match is a current transformer (CT) with a secondary rated output of 1A.
If you are interested in the measurement of small currents and do not have high requirements for measurement accuracy and range, you can also choose a current transformer (CT) with a secondary rated output of 100mA.
Returning to the question at the heart of the article, why has the industry generally adopted 5A or 1A as the standard secondary current for CTs? The reason is a combination of performance, standardization, and safety:
Performance Requirements and Historical Reasons
Early electromechanical energy meters and protective relays required a certain amount of physical energy (power) to actuate the mechanical components. 5A current provided a strong enough signal and power to ensure reliable and accurate operation of these devices. Current signals in the milliamp range are too weak, susceptible to interference and unable to drive older devices.
Standardization and Global Interchangeability
5A is established as the global standard for the power industry, ensuring that devices from different manufacturers and countries are easily compatible and interchangeable, greatly simplifying system design, manufacturing and maintenance.
Balancing Safety and Economy
The core safety objective of the CT is to isolate the high voltage high current circuits from the low voltage measurement circuits. 5A’s relatively low secondary current reduces operational risk. At the same time, the 5A strikes a good balance between cabling costs, wire cross-section requirements and power loss. Where long wiring distances are required, the 1A standard is used to further reduce line losses (1A losses are only 4% of 5A).
In summary, the selection of 5A (or 1A) as the standard secondary current for CTs is the result of engineering practices that optimize performance, cost, historical compatibility and operational reliability.
The Rogowski Coils (RC) and Current Transformers (CTs) are two core technologies for measuring alternating current, both of which operate based on the principle of electromagnetic induction. However, there are fundamental structural differences between the two the design with or without a magnetic core leads to significant differences in their performance, application scenarios and safety. CT adopts a core structure and performs exceptionally well in high-precision, low-frequency and steady-state measurements. RC adopts a coreless design, featuring greater flexibility, a wider dynamic range and anti-saturation characteristics, making it an ideal choice for high-current, high-frequency and transient applications.
The core design is the most critical differentiator between the two technologies.
| Feature | Rogowski Coil (RC) | Current Transformer (CT) |
| Core Structure | Coreless (Air-core). | Iron Core (Heavy magnetic core). |
| Working Principle | Based on Faraday’s Law of Induction. Generates a voltage proportional to the rate of change of the primary current (di/dt) . | Based on electromagnetic induction. Relies on magnetic coupling via the core to transform primary current to secondary current. |
| Output Signal | Low-level voltage signal(di/dt). | Current signal (typically 5A or 1A secondary). |
| Signal Processing | Requires an external integrator circuit to convert the derivative voltage signal back into a signal proportional to the current. | Output current is typically measured directly or converted to voltage via a burden resistor. |
The coreless design of the Rogowski coil provides distinct advantages in dynamic range and safety, while the iron core of the CT offers inherent simplicity and high accuracy at rated conditions.
| Characteristic | Rogowski Coil (RC) | Current Transformer (CT) |
| Core Saturation | None. Immune to magnetic saturation, even at extremely high currents. | Prone to saturation when exposed to currents higher than its rating, leading to non-linear response and measurement failure. |
| Measurement Range | Very Wide. Can measure from a few Amps up to thousands of Amps (e.g., 10kA) with a single unit. | Narrower. Limited by the core size and saturation point. Different CTs are required for different current ranges. |
| Frequency Response | Superior/Wide Bandwidth. Excellent response for high-frequency and transient currents (e.g., motor inrush, pulsed currents). | Limited. Frequency response is restricted by the core material. Best suited for power-line frequencies (50/60 Hz). |
| Linearity | Excellent. Maintains linear response over its entire wide measurement range. | High Accuracy at rated current and frequency, but linearity degrades significantly upon saturation. |
| Safety (Open Circuit) | Inherently Safe. Output is a low-level voltage signal, posing no high-voltage risk if the secondary is open. | Hazardous. Leaving the secondary circuit open while current is flowing can generate extremely high, lethal voltages. |
| Physical Form | Flexible and lightweight (e.g., half a pound for a 5,000A unit). | Rigid, heavy, and bulky (e.g., up to 65 pounds for a comparable range). |
| Installation | Easy. Flexible, clip-around design simplifies installation on busbars or irregular conductors, especially in tight spaces. | Difficult. Rigid design often requires a full power shutdown and custom fabrication for large or irregular conductors [3]. |
| Complexity/Cost | More complex to use due to the required external or integrated integrator. Can be more expensive than basic CTs. | Simpler to use (direct current output). Generally less expensive for standard applications. |
The choice between an RC and a CT depends heavily on the specific requirements of the application.
| Technology | Ideal Applications | Less Suitable Applications |
| Rogowski Coil | – High-Current monitoring (e.g., up to 5,000A and beyond). | – DC current measurement (RCs only measure AC/rate of change). |
| – High-Frequency and Transient analysis (e.g., power electronics, motor inrush, fault currents). | – Applications where the cost/complexity of the integrator is prohibitive. | |
| – Retrofitting or installations with irregular conductors or limited space. | – Standard utility metering where high-accuracy, low-frequency measurement is the sole requirement. | |
| Current Transformer | – Standard Utility Metering and revenue applications (high accuracy at 50/60 Hz). | – High-current measurement where saturation is a risk. |
| – Relay Protection and industrial monitoring at power-line frequencies. | – High-frequency or transient current analysis. | |
| – Applications where simplicity and low cost are prioritized. | – Installations with irregular busbars or tight space constraints. |
Rogowski coils and Current Transformers are complementary technologies. The Current Transformer remains the workhorse for traditional, high-accuracy, steady-state power monitoring and protection at power-line frequencies. The Rogowski Coil, with its coreless design, offers a modern, flexible, and safer solution that excels in demanding environments involving high currents, wide dynamic ranges, and high-frequency transients, particularly in power quality analysis and power electronics testing.
In industrial measurement and control systems, current transmitters and voltage transmitters convert analog signals into standardized electrical signals for long-distance transmission to control rooms for monitoring, recording, and control. The uniformity of these standard signals is critical for ensuring interoperability between different devices and system stability. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has established 4-20mA DC and 1-5V DC (via resistive conversion) as the analog signal standards for process control systems.
Current signals offer significant advantages over voltage signals during long-distance transmission. Industrial environments often experience severe electromagnetic interference, which easily distorts voltage signals. Additionally, voltage signals suffer voltage drops due to wire resistance during extended transmission, leading to signal attenuation and measurement errors.
The advantages of current signals are primarily reflected in the following aspects:
• Strong Interference Resistance: Noise voltages in industrial environments can reach several volts, but noise power is weak, typically generating noise currents below the nA level. Current signals are less affected by line resistance, resist attenuation, and ensure reliable data transmission in harsh electrical noise environments.
• Long transmission distance: Current sources exhibit infinite internal resistance, meaning wire resistance in series within the loop does not affect accuracy. As long as the transmission loop remains unbranched, the current through the loop remains constant regardless of wire length. This allows transmission over standard twisted-pair cables for hundreds of meters or more, ensuring transmission precision.
• Reduced cabling: Two-wire 4-20mA signal transmission simultaneously provides both power and signal, reducing cable usage and thereby lowering wiring costs and complexity.
The 4-20mA DC signal is the most widely adopted standard analog signal in industrial applications. Its selection is not coincidental but based on multifaceted technical and safety considerations.
The choice of 4mA as the starting point for the 4-20mA signal, rather than 0mA, is one of its most critical features, known as the “Live Zero.”
• Fault Diagnosis: When the signal reads 0mA, it clearly indicates a line break (open circuit) or device failure, rather than a zero measurement value. This makes fault diagnosis straightforward and intuitive, avoiding confusion between a zero signal and a broken wire fault.
• Sensor Powering: For two-wire transmitters, the 4mA current provides the minimum operating current required for sensors, ensuring proper function. This eliminates the need for additional power wires, simplifying wiring.
The choice of 20mA as the full-scale signal value is also based on safety and practicality considerations.
• Safety: The spark energy generated by the 20mA current flow is insufficient to ignite gas, meeting intrinsic safety explosion-proof requirements—critical in flammable and explosive industrial environments.
• Power Consumption and Cost: While ensuring signal transmission quality and response speed, 20mA represents a relatively low current value, helping reduce power consumption and equipment costs.
In summary, the 4-20mA DC signal has become the most widely adopted standard in industrial automation and process control due to its exceptional interference resistance, long-distance transmission capability, unique “live zero” fault diagnosis function, and inherent safety. It reliably transmits measurement data while effectively reducing wiring costs and enhancing system reliability.
The HAS series current sensors indicate the magnitude and direction of the measured current through their voltage output signals. Its core feature is that the output signal takes 2.5V as the center point and is offset according to the direction and magnitude of the current on this basis. This design enables the sensor to measure bidirectional current.
For the HAS14Z current sensor, its output voltage range is 2.5V ± 0.625V. This means:
•Zero current (0A): When no current passes through the sensor, the output voltage is 2.5V.
• Forward current: When the current is forward, the output voltage will increase from 2.5V to a maximum of 2.5V + 0.625V = 3.125V.
• Reverse current: When the current is in reverse, the output voltage will decrease from 2.5V to 1.875V, with a minimum of 2.5V – 0.625V = 1.875V.
This range of 2.5V±0.625V usually corresponds to the rated measurement current range of the sensor. For example, for HAS2009, its rated current is ±20A; For HAS4009, its rated current is ±100A.
Through the nominal sensitivity (SN) of the sensor, we can convert the collected voltage signal into the actual current value. The calculation formula is as follows:
IP = (Vout – 2.5V)/SN
Among them:
•IP is the measured current (unit: A)
• Vout is the voltage output by the sensor (unit: V)
•2.5V is the reference voltage at zero current
•SN is the nominal sensitivity of the sensor (unit: V/A or mV/A).
Example:
Suppose the HAS14Z current sensor (SN = 104.2 mV/A or 0.1042 V/A) is used.
•If Vout is measured to be 2.8V: IP = (2.8V – 2.5V) / 0.1042V /A ≈ 2.88A (forward current)
•If Vout is measured to be 2.2V: IP = (2.2V – 2.5V) / 0.1042V /A ≈ -2.88A (reverse current)
The HAS series current sensors typically have the following pins:
• VCC (+5V): Positive input of sensor power supply, connected to a stable 5V DC power supply.
• GND: The power ground and signal ground of the sensor should be shared with the ground wire of the control system.
• OUT (Vout): Sensor voltage output pin, used for collecting current signals.
Typical wiring diagram (taking microcontrollers as an example) :
Wiring precautions
1). Power supply: Ensure a stable 5V power supply is provided for the sensor. The quality of the power supply directly affects the measurement accuracy.
2). Common ground: The sensor and the microcontroller must share the same ground to avoid measurement errors caused by ground potential differences.
3). Wiring: The wire of the current to be measured should be correctly passed through the measurement hole of the sensor and centered as much as possible to ensure the best measurement effect.
The 2.5V±0.625V voltage output signal of the current sensor is mainly collected through an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The following are the detailed steps:
1). ADC configuration:
•Select the ADC pin: Connect the OUT pin of the sensor to one of the ADC input pins of the microcontroller.
•Set the reference voltage: Set the reference voltage of the ADC to 5V (if the sensor output range is 0.25V to 4.75V), or select an appropriate reference voltage based on the actual situation. Ensure that the ADC can cover the entire output range of the sensor.
•Set the resolution and sampling rate: Select the resolution (such as 10-bit or 12-bit) and sampling rate of the ADC according to the application requirements. Higher resolution provides more accurate measurements, and a higher sampling rate is suitable for rapidly changing currents.
2). Read the ADC value:
•The digital values of the ADC input pins are periodically read through microcontroller programming.
3). Convert the ADC value to voltage:
•Convert the read digital value to the actual voltage value Vout. For example, for a 10-bit ADC (0-1023) with a 5V reference voltage, the conversion formula is: Vout = (ADC_Value / 1024.0) * 5.0 (unit: V)
4). Calculate the actual current
•Use the following formula to convert the voltage Vout to the actual current IP: IP = (Vout – 2.5V)/SN, where SN is the nominal sensitivity of the sensor (unit: V/A). For instance, the SN of HAS14Z is 0.1042 V/A.
Sample calculation
Suppose the HAS14Z current sensor (SN = 0.1042 V/A) is used.
•If the output voltage Vout measured by the ADC is 2.8V: IP = (2.8V – 2.5V) / 0.1042V /A ≈ 2.88A (forward current)
•If the output voltage Vout measured by the ADC is 2.2V: IP = (2.2V – 2.5V) / 0.1042V /A ≈ -2.88A (reverse current)
By following the above steps, you can accurately collect and calculate the magnitude and direction of the current being measured.
The HAS series closed-loop principle current sensors are widely used in the following fields due to their bidirectional current measurement capability and voltage output characteristics:
• Motor control: Achieve precise speed and torque control for electric vehicles, industrial robots and other equipment.
• Battery Management System (BMS): Monitors the charging and discharging status of the battery to optimize battery health and efficiency.
• Power management: Used in UPS, SMPS, solar inverters, etc., it precisely controls the power flow.
Renewable energy systems: Monitor the current at the connection points between energy storage systems and the power grid to optimize energy conversion.
• Industrial automation: Provides real-time current data for process control, fault diagnosis and safety protection.
Current transformers (CTs), voltage transformers (VTs, also known as potential transformers (PTs), and power transformers all operate based on the principle of electromagnetic induction, but they differ significantly in their design, purpose, and operating characteristics. Simply put, CTs and VTs are instrument transformers, primarily used to measure and protect current or voltage in power systems, while power transformers are power transformers, primarily used for voltage conversion in power transmission and distribution. Below, I will compare them from multiple perspectives.
The following table summarizes the key differences between the three types of transformers:
| Current Transformer (CT) | Voltage Transformer (VT) | Control/Safety Isolation Transformer | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Applications | Measure and monitor current and protect equipment (such as relays). | Measure and monitor voltage and protect equipment. | Provide electrical isolation and voltage conversion for control circuits and safe power supply (such as preventing electric shock and powering low-voltage equipment). |
| Working Mode | When the primary is connected in series with the load circuit, the secondary must be short-circuited (or connected to a low-impedance load) to avoid dangerous high voltages. | When the primary is connected in parallel, the secondary is open-circuited or connected to a high-impedance load (such as a meter). | The primary and secondary terminals are connected to the power supply and load as required for power transmission and have no measurement function. |
| Transformation ratio characteristics | Current step-down ratio (high current → low current, e.g., 1000A:5A), low secondary voltage. | Voltage step-down ratio (high voltage → low voltage, e.g., 1kV:10V), high secondary impedance. | Voltage step-down ratio (e.g. 220V:24V), with emphasis on isolation and power transfer. |
| Design Features | Fewer primary turns, more secondary turns; high precision, low saturation; small capacity (several VA). | Similar to a small transformer, high precision; small capacity (several VA to tens of VA). | Dual-winding isolation design with shielding for enhanced safety; low-voltage PCB or chassis-mountable; high efficiency, suitable for intermittent or continuous loads; large capacity (several VA to several kilovolts). |
| Load requirements | The secondary must be short-circuited or low-impedance to avoid dangerously high voltages. | The secondary can be left open for high-impedance loads (such as instruments). | When connecting the secondary to an actual load (such as a control device), it can be left open, but this is not recommended. |
| Accuracy and Error | Emphasizes current measurement accuracy (error <1%). | Emphasizes voltage measurement accuracy (error <0.5%). | Emphasis is placed on isolation and efficiency (>65%), not measurement accuracy; voltage regulation is low. |
| Application Scenario | Power metering, protection systems, ammeters. | Voltmeters, power meters, protection relays. | Industrial automation, machine tool controls, medical equipment, security lighting, PCB power modules. |
In modern energy metering systems, accurate current measurement is crucial. The Atmel M90E32AS is a high-performance, wide-dynamic-range multiphase energy metering IC widely used in various energy meters and power monitoring equipment. Current transformers (CTs) play an indispensable role in safely and accurately transmitting high-voltage, high-current signals to the M90E32AS for processing. This article will delve into the operating principles of current transformers and how to properly connect them to the M90E32AS for reliable current measurement.
The Atmel M90E32AS is a high-performance integrated circuit designed for multiphase energy metering. It integrates six independent second-order Sigma-Delta ADCs capable of simultaneously processing three-phase voltage and current signals. The chip’s internal digital signal processor (DSP) performs complex calculations on the data collected by the ADCs to derive key energy parameters such as active power, reactive power, apparent power, power factor, frequency, and RMS values of voltage and current. The M90E32AS supports current sampling through a current transformer (CT) or a Rogowski coil, and voltage sampling through a resistor divider network.
The M90E32AS chip provides three sets of differential current input pins: I1P/I1N, I2P/I2N, and I3P/I3N, corresponding to the measurement of three-phase current. These pins are the input terminals of the analog ADC channels, allowing flexible channel mapping to adapt to different three-phase system configurations (such as three-phase four-wire or three-phase three-wire).
The ADC inside the chip is responsible for converting the analog current signal into a digital signal. The M90E32AS has a high dynamic range and high accuracy, which can ensure accurate measurement over a wide current range. The data sheet states that current sampling is performed through a current transformer (CT) or a Rogowski coil (di/dt coil) [1]. This means that the external sensor converts the current signal into a voltage signal acceptable to the M90E32AS.
The M90E32AS’s DSP not only calculates energy parameters but also supports gain and phase angle compensation to correct for errors introduced by external sensors and circuits. This is crucial for ensuring the accuracy of the entire metering system. The chip also features programmable startup and no-load power thresholds, as well as current and voltage transient signal monitoring. These features enable the M90E32AS to operate stably and reliably in complex power environments.
A current transformer (CT) is a special type of transformer used to proportionally convert large currents into smaller ones for measurement, protection, and control. Its primary functions are current isolation and current scaling. The operating principle of a CT is based on the law of electromagnetic induction: when current flows through the primary winding (usually the wire running through the center of the CT), it generates magnetic flux in the core. This flux induces an electromotive force in the secondary winding, generating a secondary current.
A CT’s ratio is the ratio of its primary-side rated current to its secondary-side rated current, for example, 100A/5A or 100A/0.1A. This means that when 100A flows through the primary, the secondary output will be 5A or 0.1A. In energy metering applications, CTs with a secondary output of milliamperes or less are typically selected to allow direct connection to the current input of a metering chip.
A CT’s accuracy class indicates its measurement error within its rated current range. For example, a 0.2S-class CT indicates an error within a specific current range of ±0.2%, which is critical for high-precision energy metering.
A CT’s burden refers to the impedance of the measuring instrument or device connected to its secondary side. The secondary side of a CT must always be closed; otherwise, an open circuit will cause high voltage to develop on the secondary side, potentially damaging the CT or posing a danger to personnel. Isolation: CTs provide electrical isolation between the primary-side high-voltage circuit and the secondary-side low-voltage measurement circuit, thereby improving system safety and reliability.
In energy metering, CTs are often used to measure high currents in the main circuit. CTs can reduce the voltage and current of the high-current signal in the main circuit, converting it into a low-current or low-voltage signal that the metering chip can process. This not only protects the metering chip from direct impact from high voltage and current, but also makes metering system design more flexible and secure.
Connecting current transformers to the Atmel M90E32AS chip requires careful consideration of the signal conditioning circuit to ensure measurement accuracy and chip safety. The M90E32AS chip’s current input pins (I1P/I1N, I2P/I2N, and I3P/I3N) are differential inputs, meaning they measure the voltage difference between the two pins. Therefore, the current transformer output typically needs to be converted to a voltage signal through a sampling resistor before being fed into the chip’s differential inputs.
We can see how a current transformer (CT) is connected. Typically, the secondary side of the CT is connected to a small-value shunt resistor. When current flows through the shunt resistor, a voltage drop proportional to the current is generated across it. This voltage drop serves as the input signal for the M90E32AS chip’s ADC.
Using single-phase current measurement as an example, the CT’s secondary output is connected to the shunt resistor, which is then connected to the I_P and I_N pins of the M90E32AS chip. To improve measurement accuracy and suppress common-mode noise, a capacitor is typically connected in parallel across the shunt resistor to form an RC filtering network. Furthermore, a voltage divider network or bias circuit may be required to provide an appropriate bias voltage to ensure the ADC input is within the operating range of the M90E32AS.
Potential for cavitation, leading to partial discharge, hot spots, and thermal cycling cracks
Service life may be reduced by 40–60%
Evacuates air at ≤5 mbar
Injects UL94V-0 epoxy resin and cures in a moisture-free environment
Significantly improves insulation performance and thermal stability
A vacuum-potted medical device transformer passed a 50,000-hour accelerated aging test.
A non-vacuum-potted device failed after 18,000 hours.
| Stressor | Consequence | Vacuum Molded Benefit |
|---|---|---|
| Vibration (5–2000Hz) | Wire fatigue | Dampens resonance 300% better |
| Thermal shock (-40~125°C) | Solder joint cracks | CTE-matched resin absorption |
| Humidity (85% RH) | Corrosion tracking | Zero permeability barrier |
–Don’t rely solely on the datasheet, request:
–X-ray scan showing void distribution
–Cross-section report measuring bubble size
–Thermal shock test (-55°C to +150°C, 500 cycles)
–Partial discharge test <5 pC (at 2x the operating voltage)
A split-core current transformer makes it easy to measure current without cutting wires.
The core of a split-type current transformer can be opened, allowing wires to be threaded through the center and secured. This transformer is suitable for applications where cutting wires is not possible. The video demonstrates how to connect and test a current transformer, monitor output current and voltage, and use a rectifier to convert AC to DC.
Split-core current transformers provide excellent isolation and ease of use for power measurement.
An autotransformer is a transformer whose windings are primary and secondary on the same winding. According to the structure, it can also be divided into adjustable voltage type and fixed type. The coupling of autotransformer means electromagnetic coupling. Ordinary transformers transfer energy through electromagnetic coupling of primary and secondary coils. There is no direct electrical connection between the primary and secondary sides. The primary and secondary sides of autotransformers have direct electrical connection, and its low-voltage coil is part of the high-voltage coil. Autotransformers and other protective equipment are also used in the protection equipment of communication lines.
An autotransformer is a self-coupling transformer. The autotransformer structure is relatively simple, low cost, and the input/output and neutral line are shared. The secondary side of the transformer is part of the primary side. The primary and secondary sides share a winding, like two coils coming out of a line. The two coils use the difference of the current to cut the magnetic lines of force to transform the voltage. It is generally used in the boost of DC power. The output and input of the transformer have direct electrical connection, and the safety performance is poor.
Isolation transformer refers to a transformer with electrical isolation between the input winding and the output winding. Isolation transformer is used to avoid accidental contact with live objects at the same time. The isolation of the transformer is to isolate the current of the primary and secondary windings. It was used in the power industry in European countries in the early days, and is widely used in the control power supply of general circuits in the electronics industry or industrial and mining enterprises, machine tools and mechanical equipment, and the power supply of safety lighting and indicator lights.
The main function of the isolation transformer is to isolate the electrical equipment from the power grid. It is used in safety occasions or occasions with anti-interference requirements. There is no direct electrical connection between the electrical equipment and the power supply. The isolation structure has many materials and high cost. In addition to changing the voltage, it can also electrically isolate the input winding and the output winding from each other, and isolate the input/output and the neutral line to avoid the danger of touching the live object (or metal parts that may be charged due to insulation damage) and the ground at the same time. In addition, the isolation transformer also has a certain effect of suppressing various interferences, has filtering performance, and is highly safe.
Isolation transformer is the most common transformer. Its low-voltage and high-voltage windings are wound by separate coils and have no electrical connection. There is no direct electrical connection between the primary and secondary sides, and the secondary winding is not connected to the ground.
The primary and secondary sides of the autotransformer have direct electrical connection. Its low-voltage coil is part of the high-voltage coil, that is, a winding with only one electrical path. There is a tap in the middle of the winding as the common point of the high-voltage and low-voltage coils.
Usually, one line of the AC power supply voltage we use is connected to the ground, and the other line has a potential difference of 220V or 380V with the ground. People will get electric shock if they touch it. The secondary high and low voltage coils of the isolation transformer are electrically insulated from each other and are not connected to the ground. There is no potential difference between any two of its lines and the ground. People will not get electric shock if they touch any line, which is safer. Therefore, no matter whether the secondary voltage exceeds the safe voltage value, as long as the person does not touch the two output points of the secondary with voltage difference at the same time, it will not cause harm to people. This is the biggest advantage of the isolation transformer. But it is large in size and high in cost.
Because the high and low voltage coils of the autotransformer overlap, some coil wire materials are saved, which is not only small in size but also low in cost. However, its high and low voltage coils are connected. Even if the output voltage of the low voltage side of the step-down transformer is very low, because its two windings have a common part, the primary high voltage will “sneak into” the secondary coil, which is very easy to cause harm to people.
Three-phase isolation transformers are mainly used for power loads of power systems and industrial and mining enterprises, and power sources that require isolation from the power grid to convert the mains electricity into magnetic electricity. They are used as power equipment for precision measurement and test purification (anti-interference) of power and power grid. Isolation transformers are safe power supplies and are generally used for machine maintenance to protect, prevent lightning, and filter.
The primary and secondary sides of the autotransformer are directly connected electrically. If the line is damaged or leaking, it is very easy to cause harm to people. It is generally used in places where safety requirements are not high. It only needs to change the voltage so that the voltage meets the required voltage of the equipment. However, the equipment cannot be equipped with a leakage protection device and the neutral wire cannot be grounded.
Copyright © 2024 PowerUC Electronics Co.
